刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言与认知》2022年第1-4期

Volume 14, Issue 1-4, 2022

APPLIED LINGUISTICS（SSCI一区，2021 IF：2.66）2022年第1-4期共发文34篇，其中研究性论文29篇，书评3篇，勘误2篇。研究论文涉及手势语、语义整合、形态-音系界面、语料库研究、神经语言学、隐喻、双语研究、二语习得研究等。

目录

ARTICLES

■Time as space vs. time as quantity in Spanish: a co-speech gesture study, by Daniel Alcaraz Carrión, Javier Valenzuela, Pages 1–18.

■ Observers use gesture to disambiguate contrastive expressions of preference, by Fey Parrill, Jennifer Hinnell, Grace Moran, Hannah Boylan, Ishita Gupta, Aisha Zamir, Pages 19–46.

■ Gender bias in morphological inferences, by Sara Finley, Saara Charania, Tiarra Lewis, Barbara Millward, Stella Wang, Pages 47–60.

■ “Hold infinity in the palm of your hand.” A functional description of time expressions through fingers based on Chinese Sign Language naturalistic data, by Hao Lin, Yan Gu, Pages 61–84.

■ Information structure effects on the processing of nouns and verbs: evidence from event-related brain potentials, by Emanuela Piciucco, Viviana Masia, Emanuele Maiorana, Edoardo Lombardi Vallauri, Patrizio Campisi, Pages 85–108.

■ Semantic integration of multidimensional perceptual information in L1 sentence comprehension, by Bing Bai, Caimei Yang, Jiabao Fan, Pages 109–130.

■ The ups and downs of space and time: topography in Yupno language, culture, and cognition, by Kensy Cooperrider, James Slotta, Rafael Núñez, Pages 131–159.

■ Do typological differences in the expression of causality influence preschool children’s causal event construal?, by Ebru Ger, Aylin C. Küntay, Tilbe Göksun, Sabine Stoll, Moritz M. Daum, Pages 161–184.

■ Understanding demonstrative reference in text: a new taxonomy based on a new corpus, by Alfons Maes, Emiel Krahmer, David Peeters, Pages 185–207.

■ The picture looks like my music sounds: directional preferences in synesthetic metaphors in the absence of lexical factors, by Alon Fishman, Pages 208–227.

■Story order in attribution of moral responsibility, by Teresa Limata, Francesco Ianì, Monica Bucciarelli, Pages 228–248.

■ Communicative efficiency and the Principle of No Synonymy: predictability effects and the variation of want to and wanna, by Natalia Levshina, David Lorenz, Pages 249–274.

■ Does time extend asymmetrically into the past and the future? A multitask crosscultural study, by Carmen Callizo-Romero, Slavica Tutnjević, Maja Pandza, Marc Ouellet, Alexander Kranjec, Sladjana Ilić, Yan Gu, Tilbe Göksun, Sobh Chahboun, Daniel Casasanto, Julio Santiago, Pages 275–302.

■ Dickens in Chol, by Lydia Rodríguez, Pages 303–331.

■ Poetics of reduplicative word formation: evidence from a rating and recall experiment, by Gerrit Kentner, Isabelle Franz, Winfried Menninghaus, Pages 333–361.

■ Speaking but not gesturing predicts event memory: a cross-linguistic comparison, by Marlijn ter Bekke, Aslı Özyürek, Ercenur Ünal, Pages 362–384.

■ Morphological processing of complex and simple pseudo-words in adults and older adults, by Miguel Lázaro, Víctor Illera, Seila García, José María Ruíz Sánchez de León, Pages 385–400.

■ Comprehension of different types of novel metaphors in monolinguals and multilinguals, by Ana Werkmann Horvat, Marianna Bolognesi, Jeannette Littlemore, John Barnden, Pages 401–436.

■ Unraveling the force dynamics in conceptual metaphors of COVID-19: a multilevel analysis, by Reza Kazemian, Hadaegh Rezaei, Somayeh Hatamzadeh, Pages 437–455.

■ Minding the manner: attention to motion events in Turkish–Dutch early bilinguals, by Anna Kamenetski, Vicky Tzuyin Lai, Monique Flecken, Pages 456–478.

■ Following negative search instructions: the role of visual context

, by Franziska Rück, Carolin Dudschig, Ian G. Mackenzie, Hartmut Leuthold, Barbara Kaup, Pages 479–499.

■ Foreign to whom? Constraining the moral foreign language effect on bilinguals’ language experience, by Nicola Del Maschio, Gianpaolo Del Mauro, Camilla Bellini, Jubin Abutalebi, Simone Sulpizio, Pages 511–533.

■ Predictability effects in degraded speech comprehension are reduced as a function of attention, by Pratik Bhandari, Vera Demberg, Jutta Kray, Pages 534–551.

■ Prediction of successful reanalysis based on eye-blink rate and reading times in sentences with local ambiguity, by Lola Karsenti, Aya Meltzer-Asscher, Pages 552–574.

■ Samesaying and double-voiced discourse in Iranian EFL learners’ production of L2 reported speech, by Mostafa Morady Moghaddam, Jodi Tommerdahl, Pages 575–595.

■ Picture perfect peaks: comprehension of inferential techniques in visual narratives, by Bien Klomberg, Neil Cohn, Pages 596–621.

■ The iconic motivation for the morphophonological distinction between noun–verb pairs in American Sign Language does not reflect common human construals of objects and actions, by Jennie E. Pyers, Karen Emmorey, Pages 622–644.

■ Syntax and object types contribute in different ways to bilinguals’ comprehension of spatial descriptions, by Anouschka Foltz, Beatriz Martín-Gascón, Florencia Paz Silva Marytsch, Javier Olloqui-Redondo, Thora Tenbrink, Pages 645–671.

■ Palatal is for happiness, plosive is for sadness: evidence for stochastic relationships between phoneme classes and sentiment polarity in Hungarian, by Réka Benczes, Gábor Kovács, Pages 672–691.

BOOK REVIEW

■ Adriana Gordejuela Senosiáin, Flashbacks in Film: A Cognitive and Multimodal Analysis. London and New York: Routledge, 2021. 185 pp. ISBN: 978-0-367-72131-2., by Maarten Coëgnarts, Pages 500–503.

■ Ronald J. Planer and Kim Sterelny, From signal to symbol: The evolution of language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2021, xx + 272 pp., ISBN: 9780262045971., by Giosuè Baggio, Pages 503–508.

■ Lei Lei and Dilin Liu, Conducting Sentiment Analysis. Cambridge University Press, 2021. pp. 104. ISBN 978-1-108-82921-2 (paperback), 978-1-108-90967-9 (E-book), by Lan Yi, Ju Wen, Pages 692–695.

ERRATUM

■ Comprehension of different types of novel metaphors in monolinguals and multilinguals – ERRATUM, by Ana Werkmann Horvat, Marianna Bolognesi, Jeannette Littlemore, John Barnden, Pages 509.

CORRIGENDUM

■ Foreign to whom? Constraining the moral foreign language effect on bilinguals’ language experience – CORRIGENDUM, by Nicola Del Maschio, Gianpaolo Del Mauro, Camilla Bellini, Jubin Abutalebi, Simone Sulpizio, Pages 696-697.

摘要

Time as space vs. time as quantity in Spanish: a co-speech gesture study

Daniel Alcaraz Carrión, University of Wisconsin-Madison

Javier Valenzuela, Universidad de Murcia

Abstract There is a distinction between languages that use the DURATION IS LENGTH metaphor, like English (e.g., long time), and languages like Spanish that conceptualise time using the DURATION IS QUANTITY metaphor (e.g., much time). The present study examines the use of both metaphors, exploring their multimodal behaviour in Spanish speakers. We analyse co-speech gesture patterns in the TV news setting, using data from the NewsScape Library, that co-occur with expressions that trigger the DURATION IS QUANTITY construal (e.g., durante todo ‘during the whole’) and the DURATION IS LENGTH construal in the from X to Y construction (e.g., desde el principio hasta el final ‘from beginning to end’). Results show that both metaphors tend to co-occur with a semantic gesture, with a preference for the lateral axis, as reported in previous studies. However, our data also indicate that the direction of the gesture changes depending on the construal. The DURATION IS QUANTITY metaphor tends to be performed with gestures with an outwards direction, in contrast with the DURATION IS LENGTH construal, which employ a left-to-right directionality. These differences in gesture realisation point to the existence of different construals for the concept of temporal duration.

Key words metaphor, time, quantity, gesture, space

Observers use gesture to disambiguate contrastive expressions of preference

Fey Parrill, Case Western Reserve University

Jennifer Hinnell, University of British Columbia

Grace Moran, Case Western Reserve University

Hannah Boylan, Case Western Reserve University

Ishita Gupta, Case Western Reserve University

Aisha Zamir, Case Western Reserve University

AbstractWe present two studies exploring how participants respond when a speaker contrasts two ideas, then expresses an ambiguous preference towards one of them. Study 1 showed that, when reading a speaker’s preference as text, participants tended to choose whatever was said last as matching the speaker’s preference, reflecting the recent-mention bias of anaphora resolution. In Study 2, we asked whether this pattern changed for audio versions of our stimuli. We found that it did not. We then asked whether observers used gesture to disambiguate the speaker’s preference. Participants watched videos in which two statements were spoken. Co-speech gestures were produced during each statement, in two different locations. Next, an ambiguous preference for one option was spoken. In ‘gesture disambiguating’ trials, this statement was accompanied by a gesture in the same spatial location as the gesture accompanying the first statement. In ‘gesture non-disambiguating’ trials, no third gesture occurred. Participants chose the first statement as matching the speaker’s preference more often for gesture disambiguating compared to non-disambiguating trials. Our findings add to the literature on resolution of ambiguous anaphoric reference involving concrete entities and discourse deixis, and we extend this literature to show that gestures indexing abstract ideas are also used during discourse comprehension.

Key words preference, contrast, gesture, embodiment, multimodality, reference tracking, ambiguity, discourse deixis, ana‍phora resolution

Gender bias in morphological inferences

Sara Finley, Pacific Lutheran University

Saara Charania, Pacific Lutheran University

Tiarra Lewis, Pacific Lutheran University

Barbara Millward, Pacific Lutheran University

Stella Wang, Pacific Lutheran University

Abstract The present study explores how language learners apply gender stereotypes in learning a novel language with grammatical gender. Adult, English-speaking participants were exposed to picture–sound pairs from a miniature language. Each picture was of a matched gendered professional (e.g., male tennis player, female tennis player) with a nonsense form [CVCV-go/gu]. Participants were exposed to 32 picture–sound pairs (16 male, and 16 female, all matched) five times in a randomized order. Following training, participants were given a two-alternative forced-choice test with novel picture–word pairs. Participants were presented with a novel picture paired with two words (e.g., [befegu vs. befebo]) and were asked to choose which word most likely portrayed the meaning conveyed by the picture. These novel items contained gender-matched professions (e.g., male and female chemist), neutral items (office supplies), stereotypically female items (makeup), and stereotypically male items (tools). Participants assigned the appropriate gender to the novel professions, and assigned gender in line with the stereotyped objects at a rate significantly greater than chance (but not for neutral items). These results support the hypothesis that learning a language with a binary grammatical gender might be influenced by gender stereotypes.

Key words artificial language learning, morphology, noun classes, gender stereotypes

“Hold infinity in the palm of your hand.” A functional description of time expressions through fingers based on Chinese Sign Language naturalistic data

Hao Lin, Shanghai International Studies University, China

Yan Gu, Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, UK

Abstract This paper investigates the relationship between fingers and time representations in naturalistic Chinese Sign Language (CSL). Based on a CSL Corpus (Shanghai Variant, 2016–), we offer a thorough description of finger configurations for time expressions from 63 deaf signers, including three main types: digital, numeral incorporation, and points-to-fingers. The former two were further divided into vertical and horizontal fingers according to the orientation of fingertips. The results showed that there were interconnections between finger representations, numbers, ordering, and time in CSL. Vertical fingers were mainly used to quantify time units, whereas horizontal fingers were mostly used for sequencing or ordering events, and their forms could be influenced by Chinese number characters and the vertical writing direction. Furthermore, the use of points-to-fingers (e.g., pointing to the thumb, index, or little finger) formed temporal connectives in CSL and could be patterned to put a conversation in order. Additionally, CSL adopted similar linguistic forms in sequential time and adverbs of reason (e.g., cause and effect: events that happened earlier and events that happen later). Such a cause-and-effect relationship was a special type of temporal sequence. In conclusion, fingers are essential for time representation in CSL and their forms are biologically and culturally shaped.

Key words Chinese Sign Language, time, finger, embodiment, number

Information structure effects on the processing of nouns and verbs: evidence from event-related brain potentials

Emanuela Piciucco, Department of Industrial, Electronics and Mechanical Engineering, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy

Viviana Masia, Department of Foreign Languages, Literatures and Cultures, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy

Emanuele Maiorana, Department of Industrial, Electronics and Mechanical Engineering, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy

Edoardo Lombardi Vallauri, Department of Foreign Languages, Literatures and Cultures, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy

Patrizio Campisi, Department of Industrial, Electronics and Mechanical Engineering, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy

AbstractElectroencephalographic (EEG) signals can reveal the cost required to deal with information structure mismatches in speech or in text contexts. The present study investigates the costs related to the processing of different associations between the syntactic categories of Noun and Verb and the information categories of Topic and Focus. It is hypothesized that – due to the very nature (respectively, predicative and non-predicative) of verbal and nominal reference – sentences with Topics realized by verbs, and Focuses realized by nouns, should impose greater processing demands, compared to the decoding of nominal Topics and verbal Focuses. Data from event-related potential (ERP) measurements revealed an N400 effect in response to both nouns encoded as Focus and verbs packaged as Topic, confirming that the cost associated with information structure processing follows discourse-driven expectations also with respect to the word-class level.

Key words information structure, word classes, expectations, event-related potentials

Semantic integration of multidimensional perceptual information in L1 sentence comprehension

Bing Bai, Department of English, Soochow University, China

Caimei Yang, Department of English, Soochow University, China

Jiabao Fan, Department of English, Soochow University, China

Abstract Many studies have substantiated the perceptual symbol system, which assumes a routine generation of perceptual information during language comprehension, but little is known about the processing format in which the perceptual information of different dimensions is conveyed simultaneously during sentence comprehension. The current study provides the first experimental evidence of how multidimensional perceptual information (color and shape) was processed during online sentence comprehension in Mandarin. We designed three consecutive sentence–picture verification tasks that only differed in the delay of the display of pictures preceded by declarative sentences. The processing was analyzed in three stages based on time intervals (i.e., 0ms, +750ms, +1500ms). The response accuracy and response time data were reported. The initial stage (i.e., ISI=0ms) attested the match effect of color and shape, but the simulated representation of color and shape did not interact. In the intermediate stage (i.e., ISI=750ms), the routinely simulated color and shape interacted, but the match facilitation was found only in cases where one perceptual information was in mismatch while the other was not. In the final stage (i.e., ISI=1500ms), the match facilitation of one particular perceptual property was influenced by a mismatch with the other perceptual property. These results suggested that multiple perceptual information presented simultaneously was processed in an additive manner to a large extent before entering into the final stage, where the simulated perceptual information was integrated in a multiplicative manner. The results also suggested that color and shape were comparable to object recognition when conjointly conveyed. In relation to other evidence from behavioral and event-related potential studies on sentence reading in the discussion, we subscribed to the idea that the full semantic integration became available over time.

Key words semantic integration, L1, color, shape, sentence comprehension, embodied cognition

The ups and downs of space and time: topography in Yupno language, culture, and cognition

Kensy Cooperrider, Department of Psychology, University of Chicago

James Slotta, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin

Rafael Núñez, Department of Cognitive Science, University of California – San Diego

Abstract Much prior research has investigated how humans understand time using body-based contrasts like front/back and left/right. It has recently come to light, however, that some communities instead understand time using environment-based contrasts. Here, we present the richest portrait yet of one such case: the topographic system used by the Yupno of Papua New Guinea, in which the past is construed as downhill and the future as uphill. We first survey topographic concepts in Yupno language and culture, showing how they constitute a privileged resource for communicating about space. Next, we survey time concepts in Yupno, focusing on how topographic concepts are used to construe past, present, and future. We then illustrate how this topographic understanding of time comes to life in the words, hands, and minds of Yupno speakers. Drawing on informal interviews, we offer a view of the topographic system that goes beyond a community-level summary, and offers a glimpse of its individual-level and moment-to-moment texture. Finally, we step back to account for how this topographic understanding of time is embedded within a rich cognitive ecology of linguistic, cultural, gestural, and architectural practices. We close by discussing an elusive question: Why is the future uphill?

Key words time, space, abstract concepts, gesture, cognitive ecology

Do typological differences in the expression of causality influence preschool children’s causal event construal?

Ebru Ger, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich

Aylin C. Küntay, Department of Psychology, Koç University

Tilbe Göksun, Department of Psychology, Koç University

Sabine Stoll, Department of Comparative Language Science, University of ZurichCenter for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE)

Moritz M. Daum, Department of Psychology, University of ZurichCenter for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE)Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich

AbstractThis study investigated whether cross-linguistic differences in causal expressions influence the mapping of causal language on causal events in three- to four-year-old Swiss-German learners and Turkish learners. In Swiss-German, causality is mainly expressed syntactically with lexical causatives (e.g., ässe ‘to eat’ vs. füettere ‘to feed’). In Turkish, causality is expressed both syntactically and morphologically – with a verbal suffix (e.g., yemek ‘to eat’ vs. yeDIRmek ‘to feed’). Moreover, unlike Swiss-German, Turkish allows argument ellipsis (e.g., ‘The mother feeds [∅]’). Here, we used pseudo-verbs to test whether and how well Swiss-German-learning children inferred a causal meaning from lexical causatives compared to Turkish-learning children tested in three conditions: lexical causatives, morphological causatives, and morphological causatives with object ellipsis. Swiss-German-learning children and Turkish-learning children in all three conditions reliably inferred causal meanings, and did so to a similar extent. The findings suggest that, as young as age 3, children learning two different languages similarly make use of language-specific causality cues (syntactic and morphological alike) to infer causal meanings.

Key words causatives, Turkish, Swiss-German, verbal morphology, syntax

Understanding demonstrative reference in text: a new taxonomy based on a new corpus

Alfons Maes, Department of Communication and Cognition (TiCC), Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands

Emiel Krahmer, Department of Communication and Cognition (TiCC), Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands

David Peeters, Department of Communication and Cognition (TiCC), Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands

Abstract Endophoric demonstratives such as this and that are among the most frequently used words in written texts. Nevertheless, it remains unclear how exactly they should be subdivided and classified in terms of their different types of use. Here, we develop a new taxonomy of endophoric demonstratives based on a large-scale corpus including three written genres: news items, encyclopedic texts, and book reviews. The taxonomy enables analysts to reliably code endophoric demonstratives based on objectively applicable criteria, while at the same time making them aware of many subtle borderline cases. We consider the taxonomy as a theoretical foundation for future theoretical and empirical work into endophoric demonstratives, and as an analytical tool allowing researchers to unify and compare the results of studies on endophoric demonstratives coming from different genres and languages.

Key words demonstratives, endophoric reference, discourse genre, referential communication, referent accessibility, corpus linguistics, pragmatics

The picture looks like my music sounds: directional preferences in synesthetic metaphors in the absence of lexical factors

Alon Fishman, Linguistics Department, Tel Aviv University

Abstract An extensive literature going back three quarters of a century holds that metaphorical mappings between sensory domains conform to a hierarchy of the senses, such that mappings from ‘low’ senses (touch, taste) to ‘high’ senses (sight, sound) are preferred over mappings in the opposite direction. Recent work has established that these directional preferences are partially explained by lexical factors. Theorists have also proposed that perceptual factors play a role in directional preferences, but without testing these factors directly and without controlling for the established effects of lexical factors. This article uses a novel construction, the verbal analogy (e.g., The picture looks like my music sounds), to explore directional preferences while controlling for several crucial lexical factors. A naturalness rating experiment reveals local directional preferences, for mappings between touch and sound and between sight and sound. The experiment finds no evidence for a general preference for mappings in either direction of the purported hierarchy of the senses, suggesting that pervious empirical findings may have been mediated by the effects of lexical factors.

Key words synesthetic metaphor, sensory language, metaphorical mapping, hierarchy of the senses

Story order in attribution of moral responsibility

Teresa Limata, Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università di Torino via Verdi

Francesco Ianì, Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università di Torino via VerdiCentro di Logica, Linguaggio, e Cognizione, Università di Torino

Monica Bucciarelli, Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università di Torino via VerdiCentro di Logica, Linguaggio, e Cognizione, Università di Torino

Abstract Discourse comprehension relies on the construction of a mental model that represents the unfolding in time of the events described. In causal scenarios, where the action of one agent (the enabler) temporally precedes and enables the action of another agent (the causer), discourse may reflect the underlying event structure by describing the enabler’s action first and then the causer’s action (story order) or may describe the causer’s action first (backward order). Studies in the literature have shown that adults consider causers to be more responsible than enablers in moral scenarios. Based on the assumption that story order favors the construction of a mental model of events, we conducted an experiment to test the prediction that preference for the causer over the enabler should be greater when events are presented in story order than in backward order. The participants in the experiment were 42 fifth-grade children, 42 adolescents, and 42 adults. The results of the experiment confirmed the prediction for all three groups of participants. We discuss the practical implications of these results for learning contexts, legal contexts, and the psychology of moral judgments.

Key words story order, moral responsibility, mental models, mental simulation

Communicative efficiency and the Principle of No Synonymy: predictability effects and the variation of want to and wanna

Natalia Levshina, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics

David Lorenz, University of Rostock

Abstract There is ample psycholinguistic evidence that speakers behave efficiently, using shorter and less effortful constructions when the meaning is more predictable, and longer and more effortful ones when it is less predictable. However, the Principle of No Synonymy requires that all formally distinct variants should also be functionally different. The question is how much two related constructions should overlap semantically and pragmatically in order to be used for the purposes of efficient communication. The case study focuses on want to + Infinitive and its reduced variant with wanna, which have different stylistic and sociolinguistic connotations. Bayesian mixed-effects regression modelling based on the spoken part of the British National Corpus reveals a very limited effect of efficiency: predictability increases the chances of the reduced variant only in fast speech. We conclude that efficient use of more and less effortful variants is restricted when two variants are associated with different registers or styles. This paper also pursues a methodological goal regarding missing values in speech corpora. We impute missing data based on the existing values. A comparison of regression models with and without imputed values reveals similar tendencies. This means that imputation is useful for dealing with missing values in corpora.

Key words contraction, efficiency, predictability, Principle of No Synonymy, register and style, missing data imputation, Bayesian regression

Does time extend asymmetrically into the past and the future? A multitask crosscultural study

Carmen Callizo-Romero, Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada

Slavica Tutnjević, Department of Psychology, University of Banja Luka

Maja Pandza, Department of Psychology, University of Mostar

Marc Ouellet, Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada

Alexander Kranjec, Department of Psychology, Duquesne University

Sladjana Ilić, Department of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Tuzla

Yan Gu, Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London

Tilbe Göksun, Department of Psychology, Koç University

Sobh Chahboun, Department of Pedagogy, Queen Maud University CollegeDepartment of Education and Lifelong Learning, Norwegian University of Science and Technology

Daniel Casasanto, Department of Psychology, Cornell University

Julio Santiago, Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada

Abstract Does temporal thought extend asymmetrically into the past and the future? Do asymmetries depend on cultural differences in temporal focus? Some studies suggest that people in Western (arguably future-focused) cultures perceive the future as being closer, more valued, and deeper than the past (a future asymmetry), while the opposite is shown in East Asian (arguably past-focused) cultures. The proposed explanations of these findings predict a negative relationship between past and future: the more we delve into the future, the less we delve into the past. Here, we report findings that pose a significant challenge to this view. We presented several tasks previously used to measure temporal asymmetry (self-continuity, time discounting, temporal distance, and temporal depth) and two measures of temporal focus to American, Spanish, Serbian, Bosniak, Croatian, Moroccan, Turkish, and Chinese participants (total N = 1,075). There was an overall future asymmetry in all tasks except for temporal distance, but the asymmetry only varied with cultural temporal focus in time discounting. Past and future held a positive (instead of negative) relation in the mind: the more we delve into the future, the more we delve into the past. Finally, the findings suggest that temporal thought has a complex underlying structure.

Key words cross-cultural studies, self-continuity, temporal asymmetry, temporal depth, temporal distance, time discounting, temporal focus

Dickens in Chol

Lydia Rodríguez, The State University of New York at Potsdam

Abstract This study examines differences in gesture production in narrative contexts between American and Chol Mayan speakers at the narrative, metanarrative, and paranarrative levels of discourse, as well as differences in the production of linear temporal gestures. First, a comparison is made between the gestures produced by speakers of American English and Chol, a Western Maya language, as they tell the story of A Christmas Carol to an interviewer. The study shows a dire contrast between the American and Chol interpretation of this classic novel, and notable differences in the speech-accompanying gestures used by Americans and Chol Mayans respectively. American speakers’ temporal utterances are often accompanied by the well-documented lateral timeline gestures, where earlier events are located to the left of the gestural space, and later events are located to the right of the gestural space. By contrast, in Chol utterances no lateral, sagittal, or vertical timeline gestures accompany any form of temporal reference; the vast majority of gestures co-occur with metanarrative and paranarrative statements and have no explicit temporal content. The second part of the study analyzes the gestures made by a Chol speaker while telling a traditional story. A qualitative analysis of this traditional narrative shows that, when telling a story of the Chol tradition that is well known to the speaker, pragmatically-motivated gestures that occur at the metanarrative and paranarrative levels are much fewer than gestures occurring at the narrative level. In this traditional narrative, the gestures co-occurring with sequential, deictic temporal expressions and temporal metaphors did not reflect any kind of timeline that resembled those made by the American speakers in the Dickens in Chol task.

Key words Time, cognition, narrative, gesture, Chol Mayan

Poetics of reduplicative word formation: evidence from a rating and recall experiment

Gerrit Kentner, Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical AestheticsDepartment of Linguistics, Goethe University Frankfurt

Isabelle Franz, Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical AestheticsDepartment of Linguistics, Goethe University Frankfurt

Winfried Menninghaus, Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics

Abstract Reduplicative words like chiffchaff or helter-skelter are part of ordinary language use yet most often found in substandard registers in which attitudinal and expressive meaning components are iconically foregrounded. In a rating experiment using nonwords that either conform to, or deviate from, conventional reduplicative patterns in German, the present study identified affective meaning dimensions, judgments of familiarity and esthetic evaluations of sound qualities associated with such words. In a subsequent recall test, we examined the respective mnemonic potential of the different types of reduplication. Results suggest that, in the absence of semantic content, reduplicative forms are inherently associated with several affective meaning associations that are generally considered positive. Two types of reduplicative patterns, namely full reduplication and [i-a]-vowel-alternating reduplication, boost these positive effects to a particularly pronounced degree, leading to an increase in perceived euphony, funniness, familiarity, appreciation, and positive belittling (cuteness) and, at the same time, a decrease in arousal. These two types also turn out to be particularly memorable when compared both to other types of reduplication and to non-reduplicative structures. This study demonstrates that reduplicative morphology may in and of itself, that is, irrespective of the phonemic and the semantic content, contribute to the affective meaning and esthetic evaluation of words.

Key words reduplication, rhyming, vowel alternation, word formation, euphony

Speaking but not gesturing predicts event memory: a cross-linguistic comparison

Marlijn terBekke, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the NetherlandsMax Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands

Aslı Özyürek, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the NetherlandsMax Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the NetherlandsCenter for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands

Ercenur Ünal, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the NetherlandsCenter for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the NetherlandsOzyegin University, Istanbul, Turkey

Abstract Every day people see, describe, and remember motion events. However, the relation between multimodal encoding of motion events in speech and gesture, and memory is not yet fully understood. Moreover, whether language typology modulates this relation remains to be tested. This study investigates whether the type of motion event information (path or manner) mentioned in speech and gesture predicts which information is remembered and whether this varies across speakers of typologically different languages. Dutch- and Turkish-speakers watched and described motion events and completed a surprise recognition memory task. For both Dutch- and Turkish-speakers, manner memory was at chance level. Participants who mentioned path in speech during encoding were more accurate at detecting changes to the path in the memory task. The relation between mentioning path in speech and path memory did not vary cross-linguistically. Finally, the co-speech gesture did not predict memory above mentioning path in speech. These findings suggest that how speakers describe a motion event in speech is more important than the typology of the speakers’ native language in predicting motion event memory. The motion event videos are available for download for future research at https://osf.io/p8cas/.

Key words motion events, event cognition, event memory, cross-linguistic differences, co-speech gesture, multimodality, Turkish, Dutch

Morphological processing of complex and simple pseudo-words in adults andolder adults

Miguel Lázaro, Universidad Complutense de Madrid

Víctor Illera, Universidad Complutense de Madrid

Seila García, Universidad Complutense de Madrid

José María Ruíz Sánchez de León, Universidad Complutense de Madrid

Abstract The role of morphemes in lexical recognition has been extensively explored in recent years, although the evidence from older adults is extremely scarce. In this study, we carry out a lexical decision task to assess the interference generated by morphological composition of pseudo-words (i.e., the longer and more error prone decisions on pseudo-words made up of morphemes in comparison to pseudo-words without morphological appearance) in a group of young and older adults (mean = 74 years). The results show the expected effect on both response latencies and error rates for both groups. The effect of imageability is also significant. The specific results for the older adults show an interaction between the morphological effect and cognitive reserve: older adults with higher levels of cognitive reserve are more sensitive to morphological interference than older adults with lower cognitive reserve. The overall results are interpreted based on current models of morphological processing and aging.

Key words aging, cognitive reserve, cognitive status, cognitive impairment, lexical decision task, morphological processing

Comprehension of different types of novel metaphors in monolinguals and multilinguals

Ana WerkmannHorvat, University of Osijek

Marianna Bolognesi, University of Bologna

Jeannette Littlemore, University of Birmingham

John Barnden, University of Birmingham

Abstract It has been suggested that multilingualism can lead to increased cognitive flexibility and creativity. No studies to date, however, have investigated whether this advantage leads to a greater propensity to find meaning in different kinds of novel metaphors. This article reports a self-paced reading study that focuses on whether such an increased propensity is displayed by multilingual English speakers, as opposed to monolingual English speakers. The article explores the difference between two broad types of novelty in metaphorical expressions, which are distinguished by how readily they conform to existing metaphorical schemata. The results indicate that both monolinguals and multilinguals find novel metaphors that conform readily to an existing schema easier to comprehend those that do not. They also take longer to seek meaning in metaphors that conform readily to an existing schema. Multilinguals are more likely than monolinguals to find meaning in both types of novel metaphor. The theoretical distinction drawn between metaphors that conform readily to an existing schema and those that do not highlights the variability of meaning in novel metaphors. It also focuses attention on the different extents to which hearers seek rich meanings as opposed to less rich but more easily derived ones.

Key words novel metaphor, multilingualism, cognitive flexibility, metaphor comprehension, high-conforming novel metaphor, low-conforming novel metaphor

Unraveling the force dynamics in conceptual metaphors of COVID-19: a multilevel analysis

Reza Kazemian, University of Isfahan

Hadaegh Rezaei, University of Isfahan

Somayeh Hatamzadeh, University of Isfahan

Abstract So far, cognitive linguistics studies on COVID-19 have focused mainly on conceptual metaphors, paying scant attention to other construal operations such as force dynamics (FD). Adopting Kövecses’s (2020, Rivista Italiana di Filosofia del Linguaggio) hybrid account of conceptual metaphor and FD, this study attempts to outline an enriched cognitive view of the figurative conceptualization of illness. It also aims to answer the question: Can FD and conceptual metaphors be merged in illness metaphors, particularly corona-related ones? Research in cognitive linguistics has focused on certain source domains, such as WAR, FIRE, NATURAL FORCE, and WILD ANIMAL, through which COVID-19 is conceptualized metaphorically. Since these metaphors feature the exchange of forces and actions, a more detailed account of these two construals could be fruitful, especially the potential FORCE SCHEMA which underlies the detected source domains. Using an amalgamated model of conceptual metaphor theory and FD, significant associations were identified between two force-exerting elements, namely Agonist and Antagonist. These findings raise important theoretical issues that have a bearing on clarifying the correlation between illness metaphors and Talmy’s force-dynamic theory to cast some light on the complex metaphorical expressions embracing the subject under scrutiny.

Key words conceptual metaphor, force dynamics, force schema, illness metaphors, COVID-19

Minding the manner: attention to motion events in Turkish–Dutch early bilinguals

Anna Kamenetski, Department of Language and Culture, UiT – The Arctic University of Norway

Vicky Tzuyin Lai, Department of Psychology, The University of ArizonaCognitive Science Program, The University of Arizona

Monique Flecken, Department of Linguistics, University of Amsterdam

Abstract Languages differ in the way motion events are encoded. In satellite-framed languages, motion verbs typically encode manner, while in verb-framed languages, path. We investigated the ways in which satellite-framed Dutch and verb-framed Turkish co-determine one’s attention to motion events in early bilinguals. In an EEG oddball paradigm, Turkish–Dutch bilinguals (n = 25) and Dutch controls (n = 27) watched short video clips of motion events, followed by a still picture that matched the preceding video in four ways (oddball design: 10% full match, 10% manner match, 10% endpoint match, and 70% full mismatch). We found that both groups showed similar oddball P300 effects, associated with task-related attention. Group differences were revealed in a late positivity (LP): The endpoint-match elicited a larger LP than the manner-match in the bilinguals, which may reflect language-driven attention. Our results indicate that cross-linguistic manner encoding difference impacts attention at a later stage.

Key words motion verbs, language typology, verb semantics, P300, late positivity

Foreign to whom? Constraining the moral foreign language effect on bilinguals’ language experience

Nicola Del Maschio, Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics, Faculty of Psychology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University

Gianpaolo Del Mauro, Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics, Faculty of Psychology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University

Camilla Bellini, Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics, Faculty of Psychology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University

Jubin Abutalebi, Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics, Faculty of Psychology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele UniversityThe Arctic University of Norway

Simone Sulpizio, Department of Psychology, University of Milano-BicoccaMilan Center for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), University of Milano-Bicocca

Abstract The moral foreign language effect (MFLE) describes how people’s decisions may change when a moral dilemma is presented in either their native (NL) or foreign language (FL). Growing attention is being directed to unpacking what aspects of bilingualism may influence the MFLE, though with mixed or inconclusive results. The current study aims to bridge this gap by adopting a conceptualization of bilingualism that frames this construct as a composite and continuous measure. In a between-group analysis, we asked 196 Italian–English bilinguals to perform a moral dilemmas task in either their NL (i.e., Italian) or FL (i.e., English). In a within-group analysis, we evaluated the effects of FL age of acquisition, FL proficiency, and language dominance – all measured as continuous variables – on moral decision-making. Overall, findings indicate that differences within bilinguals’ language experience impact moral decisions in an FL. However, the effect of the linguistic factors considered was not ubiquitous across dilemmas, and not always emerged into a MFLE. In light of these results, our study addresses the importance of treating bilingualism as multidimensional, rather than a unitary variable. It also discusses the need to reconceptualize the FLE and its implications on moral decision-making.

Key words foreign language effect, bilingualism, moral decision-making, individual differences

Predictability effects in degraded speech comprehension are reduced as a function of attention

Pratik Bhandari, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany; Department of Language Science and Technology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany

Vera Demberg, Department of Language Science and Technology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany; Department of Computer Science, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany

Jutta Kray, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the role of attention in understanding linguistic information even in a noisy environment. To assess the role of attention, we varied task instructions in two experiments in which participants were instructed to listen to short sentences and thereafter to type in the last word they heard or to type in the whole sentence. We were interested in how these task instructions influence the interplay between top-down prediction and bottom-up perceptual processes during language comprehension. Therefore, we created sentences that varied in the degree of predictability (low, medium, and high) as well as in the degree of speech degradation (four, six, and eight noise-vocoding channels). Results indicated better word recognition for highly predictable sentences for moderate, though not for high, levels of speech degradation, but only when attention was directed to the whole sentence. This underlines the important role of attention in language comprehension.

Key words temporal attention, auditory attention, speech perception, bottom-up processing, top-down prediction, semantic prediction, perceptual adaptation, noise-vocoded speech

Prediction of successful reanalysis based on eye-blink rate and reading times in sentences with local ambiguity

Lola Karsenti, Linguistics Department, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Aya Meltzer-Asscher, Linguistics Department, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Abstract The present study focuses on individual differences in the ability to recover from an initial misinterpretation during the processing of garden path (GP) sentences with local syntactic ambiguity. The performance of reanalysis in GP sentences is a cognitive task that requires efficient use of executive functions and allocation of working memory resources. In this study, we explored the possible role of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which has long been implicated in cognitive control processes, in the successful performance of reanalysis. We examined whether participants’ ability to successfully reanalyze a sentence with local ambiguity can be predicted based on (1) their tonic dopamine levels, as reflected by their resting state spontaneous eye-blink rate, measured prior to the experiment; and (2) their reading time patterns in the critical region of the sentence. We ran a self-paced reading experiment in Hebrew, assessing reanalysis performance via a paraphrasing task. We observed a linear and polynomial effect of eye-blink rate on reanalysis performance, with medium rates, corresponding to medium dopamine levels, associated with best performance. We also observed an effect of reading times, with longer reading times in the critical region predicting better reanalysis performance.

Key words syntactic processing, sentence comprehension, syntactic reanalysis, dopamine, cognitive control, eye-blink rate, individual differences

Samesaying and double-voiced discourse in Iranian EFL learners’ production of L2 reported speech

Mostafa Morady Moghaddam, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran

Jodi Tommerdahl, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA

Abstract Considering the paucity of research done on the reported speech of L2 speakers compared with the body of work based on native speakers, particularly in the domain of education, this study investigates ‘polyphony’ (the dialogic nature of discourse) in the indirect reports of Iranian English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners in light of Bakhtin’s concept of ‘double-voiced discourse’ (DVD) (Bakhtin, 1984; Zbikowski, 2002). The goal of the article was to characterise the types of reporting attested in L2 data in the language-learning classroom and to analyse instances of discord between speakers’ voices to better understand what gives rise to these differences in an additional language. To achieve this, we observed naturally occurring interactions between Iranian EFL learners to see how they change the original speech in their indirect reports via the use of semantic and syntactic transformations. The findings revealed traces of distorted reported speech that not only refute the monophonic nature of indirect reports among the interactants but also emphasise the representational characteristics of DVD in its different forms. Samesaying and distorted reported speech are closely examined in accord with the nature of an L2 produced in a language-learning classroom. This article contributes to interlanguage pragmatics, with a focus on sociopragmatic variations that delve into intersubjectivity in language interaction in an institutional context.

Key words classroom interaction, double-voiced discourse (DVD), L2 production, polyphony, pragmatics, reported speech

Picture perfect peaks: comprehension of inferential techniques in visualnarratives

Bien Klomberg, Department of Communication and Cognition, Tilburg School of Humanities and Digital Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

Neil Cohn, Department of Communication and Cognition, Tilburg School of Humanities and Digital Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

Abstract Despite the continually growing number of non-native English-speaking (NNES) teachers in English language teaching, the profession is nonetheless still shaped by native speakerism (Holliday 2005), the idealization of native English speakers (NESs) as linguistically and culturally superior to their NNES counterparts. Such an ideology leads to negative perceptions toward NNES faculty even if they hold equal qualifications to their NES counterparts. This study sought to determine whether multilingual students themselves evaluate instructors differently based on the instructors’ language background. Based on 5,050 Student Evaluation of Teaching (SET) scores compiled over three years (2015–18), independent t-tests and MANCOVA analysis revealed a statistically significant relationship between NNES students’ perceptions of teacher effectiveness and instructor’s language background. Such findings were further compounded by instructor’s gender and course variables, additionally disadvantaging NNES instructors. The broader implications are for institutional stakeholders to be cognizant of the prevalence of native speakerism in L2 The ability to reconstruct a missing event to create a coherent interpretation – bridging inference – is central to understanding both real-world events and visual narratives like comics. Most previous work on visual narrative inferencing has focused on fully omitted events, yet few have compared inference generation when climactic events become replaced with a panel employing numerous inferential techniques (e.g., action stars or onomatopoeia). These techniques implicitly express the unseen event while balancing several underlying features that describe their informativeness. Here, we examine whether processing and inference resolution differ across inferential techniques in two self-paced reading experiments. Experiment 1 directly compared five distinct types, and Experiment 2 explored the effect of combining techniques. In both experiments, differences in processing arise both between inferential techniques themselves, and at subsequent panels allowing the bridging inference to be resolved. Analysis of inferential features suggested that the explicitness of the inferential technique led to greater demand in processing, which later facilitated inference generation and comprehensibility. The findings reinforce the necessity of discussing the diversity of narrative patterns motivating bridging inferences within visual narratives.

Key words visual language, visual narrative, inference, metaphor

The iconic motivation for the morphophonological distinction between noun–verb pairs in American Sign Language does not reflect common human construals of objects and actions

Jennie E. Pyers, Wellesley College, Psychology Department, Wellesley, MA, USA

Karen Emmore, San Diego State University, School of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, San Diego, CA, USA

Abstract Across sign languages, nouns can be derived from verbs through morphophonological changes in movement by (1) movement reduplication and size reduction or (2) size reduction alone. We asked whether these cross-linguistic similarities arise from cognitive biases in how humans construe objects and actions. We tested nonsigners’ sensitivity to differences in noun–verb pairs in American Sign Language (ASL) by asking MTurk workers to match images of actions and objects to videos of ASL noun–verb pairs. Experiment 1a’s match-to-sample paradigm revealed that nonsigners interpreted all signs, regardless of lexical class, as actions. The remaining experiments used a forced-matching procedure to avoid this bias. Counter our predictions, nonsigners associated reduplicated movement with actions not objects (inversing the sign language pattern) and exhibited a minimal bias to associate large movements with actions (as found in sign languages). Whether signs had pantomimic iconicity did not alter nonsigners’ judgments. We speculate that the morphophonological distinctions in noun–verb pairs observed in sign languages did not emerge as a result of cognitive biases, but rather as a result of the linguistic pressures of a growing lexicon and the use of space for verbal morphology. Such pressures may override an initial bias to map reduplicated movement to actions, but nevertheless reflect new iconic mappings shaped by linguistic and cognitive experiences.

Key words sign language, iconicity, lexical categories, cognitive biases, American Sign Language

Syntax and object types contributein different ways to bilinguals’ comprehension of spatial descriptions

Anouschka Foltz, Institute of English Studies, University of Graz, Graz, Austria

Beatriz Martín-Gascón, Departamento de Filología Inglesa y Alemana, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain

Florencia Paz Silva Marytsch, School of History, Law and Social Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, UK

Javier Olloqui-Redondo, Departamento de Estudios Ingleses, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Thora Tenbrink, Department of Linguistics, English Language and Bilingualism, Bangor University, Bangor, UK

Abstract The world’s languages draw on different reference frames to encode spatial relationships between people, objects or places. We address how subtle differences in reference frame preferences across Spanish and English affect Spanish–English bilinguals’ interpretations of spatial descriptions involving the terms left and right. Bilinguals saw an entity (‘object’; e.g., a vase or a human) with a circle on either side, along with a description of the location of a ball relative to the object (e.g., The ball is to the right of the vase or The ball is on the vase’s right). Their task was to decide which circle indicated the ball’s location. Results showed that syntax and object type contributed differently to bilinguals’ responses: Effects of syntax patterned with Spanish preferences, whereas effects of object type patterned with English preferences. English language exposure subtly affected bilinguals’ response choices. Results are discussed with respect to experience-based theories of language processing.

Key words spatial frames of reference, Spanish–English bilinguals, language exposure, syntax, object type

Palatal is for happiness, plosive is for sadness: evidence for stochastic relationships between phoneme classes and sentiment polarity in Hungarian

Réka Benczes, Department of Communication and Media, Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest, Hungary

Gábor Kovács, Department of Communication and Media, Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest, Hungary

Abstract The past couple of decades have seen a substantial increase in linguistic research that highlights the non-arbitrariness of language, as manifested in motivated sound–meaning correspondences. Yet one of the challenges of such studies is that there is a relative paucity of data-driven analyses, especially in the case of languages other than English, such as Hungarian, even though the proportion of at least partially motivated words in Hungarian vocabulary is substantial. We address this gap by investigating the relationship between Hungarian phoneme classes and positive/negative sentiment based on 3,023 word forms retrieved from the Hungarian Sentiment Lexicon. Our results indicate that positive polarity word forms tend to contain more vowels, front vowels, continuants, fricatives, palatals, and sibilants. On the other hand, negative sentiment polarity words tend to have more rounded vowels, plosives, and dorsal consonants. While our analysis provides strong evidence for a set of non-arbitrary form–meaning relationships, effect sizes also reveal that such associations tend to be fairly weak tendencies, and therefore sentiment polarity cannot be derived from the relative frequencies of phoneme classes in a deterministic fashion.

Key words Hungarian, phoneme class, sentiment polarity, sound symbolism, non-arbitrariness

期刊简介

Language and Cognition is a venue for the publication of high-quality empirical research focusing on the interface between language and cognition. It is open to research from the full range of subject disciplines, theoretical backgrounds, and analytical frameworks that populate linguistics and the cognitive sciences. We aim to cover a wide range of interdisciplinary research focused on theoretical issues surrounding the language system.

《语言与认知》专注于语言和认知之间的界面。它对来自语言学和认知科学的所有学科、理论背景和分析框架的研究都是开放的。我们的目标是涵盖广泛的跨学科研究，重点是围绕语言系统的理论问题。

In addition to the traditional areas of cognitive linguistics (e.g., construction grammar, metaphor theory, linguistic relativity, sensorimotor simulation), we especially welcome research which considers theoretical linguistic questions within a broader cognitive context. We also strongly encourage submissions investigating iconicity, multimodality, signed languages, gesture, or language evolution. We generally do not consider applied work, such as classroom based research, or studies focused on education, language aptitude or language teaching.

除了认知语言学的传统领域(如结构语法、隐喻理论、语言相对论、感觉运动模拟)，我们特别欢迎在更广泛的认知背景下考虑理论语言学问题的研究。我们也强烈鼓励提交研究象似性、多模态、手语、手势或语言进化的作品。我们通常不考虑应用工作，例如基于课堂的研究，或专注于教育、语言能力或语言教学的研究。

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https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-and-cognition

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